Genetically Modified Organisms - 1661 Words

Food products in our community are being genetically modified or being grown next to or transported with none genetically modified food. The United States doesn’t require the distributers to put labels on their food product that contain genetically modified organisms. Also the foods originally grown without genetic modification are still being contaminated by GMOs during transportation and production. This is a problem because GMOs have been proven to increase the risk of cancer and can cause other unknown medical problems. As big as this controversy is becoming many people are completely clueless of the topic. They are simply uneducated. Many people do not know the risks involved, what they are in, or how they’re used. It is unethical to†¦show more content†¦The next step is for the farmers. They need to grow their genetically modified organisms in some sort of secure environment so contamination is not possible for the other plants being grown around them. A simple way to accomplish this is a green house. Where wind and other contributing factors can’t possibly spread seeds or anything else to GMO free products. Fruits and vegetables are made to try and reproduce. So their always giving off some part of them to try and do so. This poses a problem for GMO free products. These products should be transported separately in different vehicles and these vehicles should never get mixed up. So if one truck is used to transport GMOs it should never be used to transport GMO free products. However, if this is not possible at the time of transportation some sort of separation between the two needs to occur. The two need to be separated well enough so they can’t get contaminated by the other. Possibly have the truck separated down the middle and putting them on opposite sides. This could be done by having a permanent wall putt in. or if you need to hang some sort of tarp down the middle. Taking the products on and off the truck separately needs to happen as well. Also another problem is they are being sold right next to each other and that makes all the effort put into trying to keep the two separated pointless. So stores should invest inShow MoreRelatedGenetically Modified Organisms : An Organism1471 Words   |  6 Pagestoday’s world, genetically modifying organisms is a very common practice in the world of science. Scientists are genetically modifying a variety of different organisms, including a number of different plants, foods, medicines, and animals. To genetically modify an organism, the genetic structure of the organism has to be changed (Goldbas, 2014). The main purpose of genetically modifying an organism is to change something genetically about the function of a particular part of the organism. This idea ofRead MoreGenetically Modified Organisms And Organic Organisms Essay1578 Words   |  7 PagesAbstract In this brief, the reader will see how organic and genetically modified organisms are viewed and interpreted. They will see the â€Å"facts† about the genetically modified organisms and organic organism, and how producers and consumers view this. The reader will be able to understand what is actually happening to genetically modified organisms and organic organisms during the production and when it is getting processed. They will also learn about certified organic and the USDA organic and howRead MoreGenetically Organisms : Genetically Modified Organism1528 Words   |  7 PagesA GMO is a genetically modified organism. It is a process of taking â€Å"genes from one species and inserting them into another in an attempt to obtain a desired trait or characteristic, and this is why they are also called transgenic organism† (About GMO). This process is categorized under two names even though they are one in the same, Genetic Engineering and Genetic Modification. In order for a scientist to introduce new DNA into an organism, they must go through a series of steps or methods like:Read MoreGenetically And Genetically Modified Organisms1188 Words   |  5 Pages Genetically engineered crops or genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are plants in agriculture and the DNA that has been modified using genetic engineering techniques. The goal of this type of bioengineering is to add new traits to a plant which doesn’t occur naturally in the species. Farmers have adopted the technology. The first genetically made crop was manufactured in 1982 which was an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant. In 1986, the first free trials were in Europe and the USA and were madeRead MoreGenetically Modified Organisms779 Words   |  3 PagesINTRO Genetically modified organisms are genetically modified organisms. If you look in the average American cupboard many of the packages found there contain foods that have been genetically modified. Some researchers believe that people need to be more aware of the genetically altering chemicals put in their body. Consumers should be limiting the amount of genetically modified foods in their daily diet. â€Å"In a study in the early 1990s, rats were fed genetically modified (GM) tomatoes. Well actuallyRead MoreGenetically : Genetically Modified Organisms1386 Words   |  6 PagesLessliee Echevarria Hollis 6th Senior Project 18 March 2015 Genetically Modified Organisms According to a census done by the United Nations, as of October 31, 2011 the world’s population has reached seven billion people. The earth’s population is estimated to reach between 8.3 and 10.9 billion by 2050. Will the earth be able to sustain and feed that many mouths? The planet’s current population is already two to three times higher than the sustainableRead MoreGenetically And Genetically Modified Organisms2311 Words   |  10 PagesGenetically Modified Organisms are organisms whose genetic make-up have been changed by mutating, inserting, or deleting genes, by using genetic engineering techniques or biotechnology (Klein, Wolf, Wu Sanford, 1987). The topic of genetically modified organisms became very controversial in today’s world. GMO have been used not only in producing vegetable, but also in medical and biological researches, drug production, and medical treatments. However, the food field generates the biggest controversyRead MoreGeneticall y Modified Organisms1128 Words   |  5 Pagesseeds. He calls it genetically modified corn. You plant it and the next year and the year after that there is no need to worry about pest, because the pesticides you used no longer harm your plants. Your growing season is longer and you have much more corn on the same area of land and you can now sell your corn in the market regularly. It seems like a good thing to have a GMO on your land. A GMO or genetically modified organism refers to plant life that has been genetically enhanced to benefitRead MoreGenetically And Genetically Modified Organism998 Words   |  4 PagesGMO or genetically modified organism. Is an organism which has had its genetic makeup altered by removing part of its genetic makeup and inserting a modified gene from another organism or the mutation or deletion of the biome. The biological complexity of life is narrowed down to a single gene and shoot at with foreign substances that change a genetic trait of an animal or plant. The history of altering genetics goes back to a family who had a monopoly on petroleum in the 19th century and becameRead MoreGenetically Modified Organism : An Organism1364 Words   |  6 PagesAM Core Rayna Liu Sandoval Feb. 12, 2016 SAY NO TO GMOs GMO, â€Å"Genetically modified organism; an organism or microorganism whose genetic material has been altered by means of genetic engineering,† as defined by dictionary.com. GMOs today are a great leap to another stage of technology we are still developing and researching†¦ as some people think, but they are not the most essential thing we need today. Injecting chemicals and drugs into food for â€Å"more nutrients†

Essay on Governess Relationships in Brontes Jane Eyre

Governess Relationships in Brontes Jane Eyre The Victorian governess suffered socially because of her position. The relationship between her and others that were in her class was strained because of her financial situation. She often suffered from status incongruity. The relationship between a governess and a gentleman was difficult because she was not his financial equal (Peterson 13). While the relationship was strained in her novel Jane Eyre, Bronte leads us to believe that it is not altogether impossible. When speaking of the governess and relationships we must first deal with status incongruity in the novel. There are several instances in Jane Eyre where the social strain is clearly displayed. The scene that takes†¦show more content†¦Lady Ingram is the one quick to reject the notion, reminding everyone in a subtle way that Jane is in fact beneath them. The whole Ingram family has a negative attitude toward the governess. Blanche claims: I have just one word to say of the whole tribe; they are a nuisance (180; ch. 17). Lady Ingram’s response to inviting Jane to play shows the attitude Victorian women had toward the governess. Not only does Jane’s station as a governess bring a social strain, but it also offers a potential threat. Victorian ladies viewed the governess as a threat to their happiness, and feared losing their husbands to the governess (Peterson 14). Earlier in the novel when asked on the governess Lady Ingram admits the word [governess] makes me nervous (179; ch. 17). Because the governess was a woman who worked for her living, she was associated with the working-class woman. The working-class woman was possessed sexual aggressiveness which was seen inseparable from her economic independence. The governess took her position in the very heart of the home, which brought about an explosive threat of unregulated sexuality (Hughes 119). Perhaps the threat the governess posed is best displayed when Blanche tells the story of her governess and her brother’s tutor: I helped you in prosecuting (or persecuting) your tutor, whey faced Mr. Vining–the parson in the pip, as weShow MoreRelatedEssay on A Womans World in Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontà «1145 Words   |  5 Pagesto write under a fake male name in order to have Jane Eyre published and read. Nevertheless, she was still completely focused on addressing issues concerning women, education, and marriage. Combining these topics, she produced one of the most popular novels in the English language. The deaths of her older sisters, the time she spent as a teacher and a governess, and her relationship with Constantin Hà ©ger influenced Charlotte Brontà « to write Jane Eyre. Brontà « was born on April 21, 1816, the third ofRead MoreEssay on Criticisms of Jane Eyre1615 Words   |  7 PagesCriticisms of Jane Eyre The major criticisms of the novel in question to be the melodrama used by the author and the wickedness of character shown in Jane and Mr. Rochester. While most critics admired the style of writing and truth of character portrayal, they did not admire the improbability of circumstances or the characters portrayed. Elizabeth Rigby (later Lady Eastlake) was probably the harshest critic, calling Jane Eyre â€Å"the personification of an unregenerate and undisciplinedRead MoreJane Eyre Feminist Analysis1066 Words   |  5 Pagestheir intuition. Jane Eyre, a semi-autobiography by Charlotte Brontà «, is an exemplary novel where an untraditional heroine defies societal normality. The female protagonist Jane Eyre exhibits a self-created drive for personal success and a perpetual ambition to learn, characteristics customary of men. After the publication of Jane Eyre, many critics has viewed it through the feminist literary lenses, claiming it to contain biblical feminism. In the literary analysis â€Å"Charlotte Brontà «Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s Religion: FaithRead MoreEssay On Governess In Jane Eyre1227 Words   |  5 PagesThe process of procuring the governess position at Thornfield Hall is the moment that Jane Eyre steps into a further level of independence that defies the Victorian standards of the t ime period for women (Godfrey 857). From the moment that Jane posts her advertisement in the Shire Herald, she seizes the possession of her life by her ambition to rise into a higher social class and rely simply own her own ability free from reliance on others (Brontà « 694; Vanden Bossche 47). The desire for this stepRead MoreEssay about Finding the Balance of Love and Freedom in Jane Eyre1339 Words   |  6 PagesSimilar to many of the great feministic novels of its time, Jane Eyre purely emerges as a story focused on the quest for love. The novel’s protagonist, Jane, searches not only for the romantic side of love, but ultimately for a sense of self-worth and independence. Set in the overlapping times of the Victorian and Gothic periods, the novel touches upon both women’s supposed rights, and their inner struggle for liberty. Orphaned at an early age, Jane was born into a modest lifestyle, without any major parentRead More Charlotte Brontes Jane Eyre - A Romantic Ending In An Anti-Romantic Novel1166 Words   |  5 PagesJane Eyre - A Romantic Ending In An Anti-Romantic Novel This paper discusses the ending of Jane Eyre, discussing whether it is a â€Å"good† ending. The paper draws on three criticisms of both the novel and Romantic literature in general to conclude that, yes, it is indeed a good ending because it both fits the prevailing realism of the main character’s worldview, and conforms to the predominant literary trends of the period. The climate in which Charlotte Bronte wrote her magnumRead MoreFeminism in Jane Eyre1317 Words   |  6 PagesFeminism in Jane Eyre After reading Jane Eyre, I think Jane Eyre is a great woman. Jane is disadvantaged in many ways as she has no wealth, family, social position or beauty. Jane does have intelligence though, and her disposition is such to make Rochester fall in love with her. Through a serious of troublesome situations between Jane Eyre and Mr. Rochester, the author set up a great female image before us: insisting on maintaining an independent personality, pursuing individual freedom, advocatingRead MoreJane Eyre By Charlotte Bronte1601 Words   |  7 Pages An obscure orphan governess, perceived to be too young, too penniless, too insignificant to control her own life, defied societal conventions of her time, and remains relevant to this day. Why does this poor, plain governess with no financial prospects or social standing matter in a modern feminist perspective? If she could speak, a modern feminist’s beliefs would likely shock her, so to interpret this novel as feminist, one must see it thr ough the lens of the time and place Brontà « wrote it. CharlotteRead More Role of Women in Jane Eyre Essay example1504 Words   |  7 PagesCharlotte Bronte’s Jane Eyre represents the role of women in the Victorian era by giving the reader an insight into the lives of women from all social classes. Jane Eyre therefore represents figures of the Victorian time yet the character of Jane Eyre, herself, can be seen as very unconventional for the Victorian society. England, in the eighteenth century, was driven by class distinction and wealth. In the lower class there was always a desperate struggle to survive which contrasted to the lifeRead MoreEssay on An Analysis of Charlotte Brontes Jane Eyre1431 Words   |  6 PagesAnalysis of Charlotte Brontes Jane Eyre Charlotte Brontes Jane Eyre is presented in the Victorian Period of England. It is a novel which tells the story of a childs maturation into adulthood. Janes developing personality has been shaped by her rough childhood. She has been influenced by many people and experiences. As a woman of her time, Jane has had to deal with the strain of physical appearance. This has a great effect on her mental thinking and decision making. Jane Eyres cognitive and

My Adventure Free Essays

My Traveling Adventure The wind hummed past my head, and I noticed off to my side that the sky was starting to clear and that the water surrounding me was becoming a brighter shade of blue. The features of my destination were quickly becoming more distinguishable with each second that passed. Only fifteen minutes before, the features coming into view had appeared as small white dots across the horizon. We will write a custom essay sample on My Adventure or any similar topic only for you Order Now Looking at my small digital watch, I noticed that the time was 3:45 p. m. , five minutes away from the island of Islesboro. The voyage across Penobscot Bay to Islesboro was one of excitement for me. The excursion to Islesboro started in the coastal town of Lincolnville, Maine. Waiting in the parking lot of the Lobster Pound Restaurant, I frequently saw young children frolicking across the sandy Lincolnville Beach off of Route 1. The smell of freshly cooked seafood and salty sea air mixed together while I sat on one of the bucolic wooden benches along the shore. The Margaret Chase Smith, the Maine State Ferry Service’s ship that ventured to Islesboro and back, quickly docked at the end of a long wooden pier strewn with barnacles. The ferry navigated back and forth between eight monstrous black rubber pads jutting out from the water until it finally halted. The rusty metal ramp lowered onto the deck of the ship as cars started their loud engines, intruding upon the tranquility of the scene. My grandfather and I cautiously walked onto the ship after all the outgoing cars had departed. We gave the attendant our tickets and then watched the cars behind us drive onto the ferry like young children following their grade school teacher. After rushing up the water-coated staircase to the observation deck, I instinctively ran over to one of the large, four-foot windows in the observation room. My grandfather approached me and lifted up the heavy glass window. I loved feeling the cool sea breeze rush past me. As a child, I adored scavenger hunts, and the zenith of my voyage was when I rushed up to the ship’s fire plan document displayed for general viewing above the ship’s main water fountain. I searched the ship with my grandfather for all of the fire extinguishers, returned to the map to observe if there were any that I ad missed, and then journeyed again to find the unnoticed extinguishers. I proceeded to do the same for the life preservers, life jackets, and even the water hoses. My grandfather, waiting at the front of the observation room, assisted me up the stairs to the upper deck; by that time, enough time had passed so that the trip was almost complete. The top level of the ship was less active t han any other place on the ship. Few people had the courage to stay on the windy, cold deck above the observation rooms. The only sound on the third level was the rumbling thunder of the electrical motor escaping from the captain’s chamber. An unpleasant metal chain bearing the simple â€Å"CREW ONLY† sign guarded the white cabin. I had found it to be an ideal location to take panoramic pictures of the surroundings. Focusing on the horizon, one could obtain a perfect picture of nearby Mt. Battie in Camden or the Islesboro lighthouse. It was also an outstanding place to grasp the railings and look over the side of the ship, noticing an occasional whitecap or piece of driftwood floating in the overall calm sea. Another of my favorite locations on the ship was standing at the bow of the ferry, clutching in my hands the rusty metal chain barricading the exit. From this site, I was able to see everything directly in front of the ship and view the entire Islesboro dock as it rapidly approached. It had been from this location where I spotted a porpoise emerging from the bright blue ocean depths; I had also observed an enormous oil tanker voyaging up the bay to its port in the town of Searsport, fifteen miles north. The tanker’s figure loomed like a rain cloud over the horizon in front of the boat; as we approached, we were able to identify the major features of its cargo. Nearing the port at Islesboro, I smiled as I looked up at my grandfather. The first landmark I noticed was the Grindle Point Lighthouse. We had made a pledge to each other to see as many Maine lighthouses as possible during our years together. The green and red Grindle Point Light attracted visitors who could journey up the stairs to the source of the light. Continuing to stand at the bow of the ship, I saw the residents and visitors to the island desiring a ride back to the mainland. The large rubber hands of the dock led the boat into its proper position to unload. The ride over to the island of Islesboro had been exciting for me throughout my life. It was very meaningful to me because it had always been something I enjoyed doing with my grandfather. Of the many voyages we had embarked upon, the Islesboro trip epitomized all of the experiences we enjoyed doing together. I have traveled on many boats as I have become older, such as the Bluenose to Nova Scotia and the Steamship Authority’s ferry to Nantucket Island, but none have had more of an impact on me than my first ferry ride on the Margaret Chase Smith. How to cite My Adventure, Essay examples

Poems by W.B Yeats analysis Essay Example For Students

Poems by W.B Yeats analysis Essay Reading each of these poems by W.B Yeats, we see marked differences in the tone of each, however, we also see similarities in the imagery and language used to create this tone. Even in this limited group of poems definitive patterns begin to emerge. We recognise his tendency to use strong natural imagery, and the names of actual places where appropriate and to use imagery not only in supplementing the body of the text, but also as the body of the text: wandering water gushes, from the hills above glen car, in pools among the rushes, that scarce could bathe a star this is a fine example of how imagery alone describes place and mood, without need for other description. The above excerpt is from The Stolen Child. This poem is W.B Yeats delving deep into the magical world of Irish mythology, and bringing forth the myth of the fairy people, which he finds intriguing, and recording it. This was a large part of what Yeats desired to do: record the oral tradition before all the tales of old Ireland were lost. In this poem Yeats establishes his themes early on. Sleep features heavily as do the supernatural solicitings of the fairy folk. The drowsy water rats and And is anxious in its sleep and We seek for slumbering trout Yeats ensures, through his use of soft soothing consonants and onomatopoeic words, slumbering, whispering and drowsy,- and the first person narrative style of the poem, that we feel as the child feels as the fairies seduce him away, steal him, away to the wild, rich world Yeats has expertly created through weaving of natural imagery. In this poem Yeats almost personifies the nature of which he speaks: over the young streams Till the moon has taken flight thus reinforcing our conviction that Yeats has a deep and yearning love for these places and images of rural Ireland. Finally, the last stanza of the poem reveals the perverse intentions of the fairies, as they express their victory over this human child: for HE comes the human child this is a variation on what had usually been the repeated part of the stanza which, until now, had been intended to lull us under the fairy control. Its change denotes a variation in the tone of the poem, from lulling and light-hearted, to victorious and celebratory, almost in a mocking fashion. This romantic image of Ireland which Yeats loves so much is not left in The Stolen Child. In The Lake Isle of Innisfree, we see again strong use of natural imagery to conjure a very romantic, very pleasing and idyllic image of rural Ireland in even the mind of a foreigner. In writing The Lake Isle of Innisfree, Yeats was obviously aiming to preserve and publicise his dream, his dream of an ideal place and an ideal lifestyle, where  he wants to be at this instant. Therefore the immediate tone of the poem is deliberate and profound, shown by the below quote and the use of first person narrative style: I will arise and go now unlike some of his earlier writings such as The Stolen Child, where the same type of imagery is used, Yeatss writing here is much tighter and leaves us more to imagine. For example, where in The Stolen Child Yeats clearly describes colours and shapes, in The Lake Isle of Innisfree he leaves us to create these images for ourselves. This shows us he understands that although this may be his idea of paradise he cannot force it upon other people, only tell them of it, and allow their imagination to perfect the imagining. .u75a216e2c79259af1e798af4f1a706a7 , .u75a216e2c79259af1e798af4f1a706a7 .postImageUrl , .u75a216e2c79259af1e798af4f1a706a7 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u75a216e2c79259af1e798af4f1a706a7 , .u75a216e2c79259af1e798af4f1a706a7:hover , .u75a216e2c79259af1e798af4f1a706a7:visited , .u75a216e2c79259af1e798af4f1a706a7:active { border:0!important; } .u75a216e2c79259af1e798af4f1a706a7 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u75a216e2c79259af1e798af4f1a706a7 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u75a216e2c79259af1e798af4f1a706a7:active , .u75a216e2c79259af1e798af4f1a706a7:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u75a216e2c79259af1e798af4f1a706a7 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u75a216e2c79259af1e798af4f1a706a7 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u75a216e2c79259af1e798af4f1a706a7 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u75a216e2c79259af1e798af4f1a706a7 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u75a216e2c79259af1e798af4f1a706a7:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u75a216e2c79259af1e798af4f1a706a7 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u75a216e2c79259af1e798af4f1a706a7 .u75a216e2c79259af1e798af4f1a706a7-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u75a216e2c79259af1e798af4f1a706a7:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Many argue that throughout Aenied, Virgil develops Aeneas to be a boring and unheroic character EssayThe Stolen Child: and of reddest stolen cherries is very descriptive The Lake Isle of Innisfree: a hive for the honey bee is simpler, tighter. This writing style makes the overall tone of the poem more musing and contemplative, than accounting and direct. On another vein we can view this poem as his frantic attempt to state intentions and desires, before he thinks himself out of it. There are few full stops in each stanza. Each stanza, in fact, it a long sentence and highlights Yeatss longing to state his love for this place. The image he presents is very romantic and in tune with nature, he shall have a primitive dwelling and live off the land, free from the troubles and cares of the world, a relaxing idea which is transferred through the appropriate use of regular onomatopoeic words-such as beewith the regular hum-to the reader, which in turn softens the tone and soothes their mind. The poem end slightly differently from how it begins, finishing on a profoundly mournful note, where he feels this place always in his deepest of being, the deep hearts core finally, the poem Cuhulains Fight with the Sea illustrates a bridging of tone and imagery between The Stolen Child and The Lake Isle of Innisfree. Here not only do we see natural imagery, again almost nature personified : to the dim sleepy ground but more so the themes of lightness and darkness: yet somewhere under starlight or the sun which also appear in The Stolen Child: wave of moonlight glossesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ and foot it all the night these themes of light and dark create uncertainty and tension of tone. The themes are also bridging, where The Lake Isle of Innisfree is very in touch with reality saying this is what I dream of, but I know it is fantasy, therefore I shall always dream of it and feel it in the deep hearts core and The Stolen Child is very fantastical, dealing with the old Irish myth of the fairies stealing young babies and leaving changeling children, Cuhulains Fight with the Sea is a mythically themed poem, but  it has some serious themes in it also, like betrayal and jealousy. For this reason, it can be described as a bridge. There are also similarities in tone between both poems and Cuhulains Fight with the Sea. The Lake Isle of Innisfree shares tones of deliberation: shown by Emer during her fury whilst she is determined to punish Cuhulain for his unfaithfulness, and shown by Yeats during his opening to The Lake Isle of Innisfree. Similarly there are tones of supernatural occurrences, where Conchubar, ranks his druids round him ten by ten druids are a type of witch doctor or olden priest, whom had a knowledge of nature also the numbers in this poem hold special meaning: ten by ten. The tone of this poem, for the central stanzas is very descriptive of the mythology, noticing the harp being played, is a reference to oral tradition, and the reference to oaths and long journeys to and from war. This is a romantic image of the olden stories, which is becoming typical of what we would expect to see from Yeats. Finally, the tone settles into melancholy as Cuhulain kills his son. The sombre tone is heightened by the silence of the protagonist and the tragedy of the outcome, bringing it once again closer to reality.

British Airways functional areas Essay Example

British Airways functional areas Essay British Airways have many departments and functional areas. These also include Marketing, Finance and Community Relations. Marketing, Finance and Community Relations all co-operate with each other in different ways (mentioned in 2C).  The effectiveness of Marketing co-operating with Finance is generally good as the Marketing Department need to be able to advertise as much as they can to ensure the members of public use their airline and through finance they can use money to a certain extent which will help them to be known. Marketing needs to also report back to Finance according to research on what prices they should set their tickets. This is good as it is showing teamwork between the two departments and they are working together to achieve success for the company. The effectiveness of Marketing co-operating with Community Relations is also good as by finding out what the customers want by carrying out different types of research goes to show that the people who work for British Airways care about what the members of the public need.  The effectiveness of Finance co-operating with Marketing is good because it shows teamwork and good decision making. The finance department gives the marketing department a reasonable budget on how much they can spend on advertising and other things such as research etc. The effectiveness of Finance co-operating with Community Relations is excellent as it really shows concern for the poor and the needy. If the staff members decide to fly out to help with any charity or programme, the finance department help by funding money to them which covers the cost of flight, accommodation, food and drink etc.  The effectiveness of Community Relations co-operating with Marketing is very efficient as it helps them to be known worldwide. As Community Relations do works for the poor and needy, they inform the Marketing Department about their wonderful acts. This then allows the Marketing Department to advertise which will then bring customers to fly with British Airways. We will write a custom essay sample on British Airways functional areas specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on British Airways functional areas specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on British Airways functional areas specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The effectiveness of Community Relations co-operating with Finance is good because just in case the community relations need some money or funds to contribute to the society, they can turn towards the finance department and then they can help them with anything that needs to be given for a good cause.  Changes that I think should personally be made are for the Finance department to be careful as to who and which department they lend money to. This is because their main aim as being a big company is to make a profit and not using their money wisely may prevent them making a profit as so much money will be gone out to departments and other things to do with the business. This is my only suggestion otherwise British Airways is running well and they just need to keep up their excellent service and continue doing a good job for the members of the public giving them everything they need. How effectively does British Airways functional areas co-operate with each other.  Criterion 2A  It is good for departments to co-operate with each other as it makes things easier for people as more things will be done and will be more clear understandings. It is also good to co-operate with each other as more things gets done and speeds up the process of work rate such as decision making. It shows teamwork and when working for a big company teamwork and teamwork is required for success. British Airways have many departments and functional areas. These also include Marketing, Finance and Community Relations. Marketing, Finance and Community Relations all co-operate with each other in different ways (mentioned in 2C).  The effectiveness of Marketing co-operating with Finance is generally good as the Marketing Department need to be able to advertise as much as they can to ensure the members of public use their airline and through finance they can use money to a certain extent which will help them to be known. Marketing needs to also report back to Finance according to research on what prices they should set their tickets. This is good as it is showing teamwork between the two departments and they are working together to achieve success for the company. The effectiveness of Marketing co-operating with Community Relations is also good as by finding out what the customers want by carrying out different types of research goes to show that the people who work for British Airways care about what the members of the public need.  The effectiveness of Finance co-operating with Marketing is good because it shows teamwork and good decision making. The finance department gives the marketing department a reasonable budget on how much they can spend on advertising and other things such as research etc. The effectiveness of Finance co-operating with Community Relations is excellent as it really shows concern for the poor and the needy. If the staff members decide to fly out to help with any charity or programme, the finance department help by funding money to them which covers the cost of flight, accommodation, food and drink etc.  The effectiveness of Community Relations co-operating with Marketing is very efficient as it helps them to be known worldwide. As Community Relations do works for the poor and needy, they inform the Marketing Department about their wonderful acts. This then allows the Marketing Department to advertise which will then bring customers to fly with British Airways. The effectiveness of Community Relations co-operating with Finance is good because just in case the community relations need some money or funds to contribute to the society, they can turn towards the finance department and then they can help them with anything that needs to be given for a good cause.  Changes that I think should personally be made are for the Finance department to be careful as to who and which department they lend money to. This is because their main aim as being a big company is to make a profit and not using their money wisely may prevent them making a profit as so much money will be gone out to departments and other things to do with the business. This is my only suggestion otherwise British Airways is running well and they just need to keep up their excellent service and continue doing a good job for the members of the public giving them everything they need.

Waiting for Social Security Disability

Waiting for Social Security Disability Social Security Disability: The Ultimate Waiting Game The process for Social Security Disability is not an easy one, and it certainly is not fast. At the initial application level there are very low approval rates, extremely over-worked Social Security employees, and incredible hardships faced by the claimants. All of this mixed together results in a frustrating experience for the person who is trying to secure an income to help their family.One of the hardest parts of the entire process is the waiting. You can’t work, you have no income, the bills are piling up, and there are notices coming in almost weekly. It seems like there is no end in sight.After you submit your request for a hearing, the biggest wait time begins. The wait times for a hearing vary between each office. Here are Michigan’s hearing offices and their average wait times for cases that were heard in September, 2016:Detroit  15 monthsFlint  18 monthsGrand Rapids  18 monthsLansing  17 monthsLivonia  13 monthsMt. Pleasant  19 monthsOak Park  16 monthsIn comparison, the shortest waiting period belongs to Fort Smith, AR at 8 months, and the longest waiting period is in Ponce, Puerto Rico at 27 months (25 months in Buffalo, NY is the highest for states). The average wait time for all of the hearing offices is 17.7 months which shows that Michigan is experiencing roughly average wait times.One of the biggest contributing factors is the huge backlog of cases. Since there is such a low approval rating on the initial applications, there is a huge number of people filing appeals. The more people with appeals pending in a certain area, the longer the wait time.There is a light at the end of the tunnel though. For the 2016 fiscal year, more hearings were heard than scheduled.If you are finding yourself in a hardship situation, you may be able to speed up your case. This is never guaranteed, and there are no definite set of guidelines for approval, but it is always worth a shot.Additionally, if you need help with food, bills, or gen eral living expenses, please check out the Resources area of our website, contact the United Way at 411, or look into local charities and churches.

Lev Vygotsky Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Lev Vygotsky - Term Paper Example Noticeably intelligent and articulate as a young boy, Vygotsky was dubbed the "little professor" (Wertsch, 1985, p.4). The family lived amidst an explosion of politics, philosophy, and art as well as prejudice, hunger, and disease. Growing up during the Russian Revolution, a time of tremendous social, cultural, and economic upheaval caused Vygotsky great personal difficulty at the same time it liberated him to look at philosophical and societal issues with fresh eyes. Tuberculosis struck Vygotsky at age twenty-six. Forewarned of an early death, Vygotsky worked at a feverish pace to produce over 180 studies, articles, and books (Blanck, 1990). Vygotsky was such an impassioned speaker that throngs of scholars, unable to gain entry into the crowded halls in which he spoke, gathered outside the windows in the hope of capturing his lectures. Wherever Vygotsky traveled in Russia, people left poetry and garlands of flowers by the wayside. Such accounts describe a unique mind and sensibility that affected and even cast a spell on thousands (Van der Veer and Valsinger, 1991). ... 1). Vygotsky excelled academically, spoke eight languages, and was able to teach far ranging subjects such as literature, Russian, education, psychology, logic, aesthetics, and art history (Blanck, 1990). With close collaborators, Alexander R Luria and Alexei N. Leontiev, Vygotsky formed a famous "troika" (Kozulin, 1990), or what John-Steiner (1997) calls a "thought community" (p.207) that became a driving intellectual force in Russia. Vygotsky borrowed ideas from different disciplines to form his learning theory. Psychology and education are the fields in which he made his major contributions although he possessed no formal training in either. It may be that Vygotsky's unique vision was predicated on his ability to look at established ideas in a new way. This may also account for the wide appeal of his work. Blanck (1990) believes that ... it was precisely his newness to the field coupled with his strong insights from other fields (philosophy, linguistics, semiotics, historical mate rialism) that illuminated for Vygotsky fresh answers to perplexing questions (pp.38-39). Vygotsky was coincidently born the same year as Piaget, and like Piaget, his learning theory exerted a profound influence, even creating a paradigm shift, on the way in which we view human development and learning. Vygotsky was a deep thinker, capable of integrating complex philosophical ideas into a unique vision of his own. Vygotsky investigated how humans think, learn, and function within the context of society. Vygotsky's broad-ranging inquiry across discipline, methodology, and ideology, conceived so long ago and squarely situated within the social realm, continues to motivate and inspire the

Reflection on ERIE Step IV Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reflection on ERIE Step IV - Assignment Example nother one is influenced by numerous factors, such as personal mind and brain activity of a child, character of learner, educator’s teaching style, form of information’s representation, level of students’ involvement in the teaching process, variety of tasks and assignments, opportunities to implement children’s creativity and initiative, atmosphere in a classroom, psychological approach of the teacher and educator’s experience and emotional urge. Taking into account such a large number of internal and external variables that cause specific impact on the learning process, it is no wonder that frequently results of our educational system can be rather disappointing. This happens due to the fact that some teachers are prone to disregard any notion from the mentioned list and build a lesson according to a standard template; meanwhile, it is imperative to keep in mind that every student is individuality, who sometimes requires special approach. Knowledge can be considered as indispensable part of our not only professional, but also social and private life. According to the gist of studied theories, such as constructivism, objectivism, humanism and behaviorism, the same piece of information can be represented and taught differently thereby the results and return from each approach can vary drastically. With the help of carried out researches, it has been found out that human’s ability to forget some information and fail to apply the knowledge which he or she has gained previously in specific situations is affected by experience and emotional background. Secondly, it has been proved by many scientists that availability and abundance of information, such as personal incentive that encourages student to enroll in a course, the main goal of the lectures, student’s preferences regarding offered activities and learner’s psychological reactions along with age, sex and social background, play extremely urgent role in the character of the final results.

Management Tasks and Computer Technology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Management Tasks and Computer Technology - Essay Example In this scenario, much of the data and information comes openly from the vision and mission statement for the organization. In addition, establishing objectives for the business goal and following up on the implementation of the plan are two significant elements of the planning function. For instance, if an organization wants to open a new local restaurant, the manager will need to develop a marketing plan, a hiring plan and a sales plan. Additionally, the formulation of these plans can involve extensive searches of data and information as well as creation of a technically feasible proposal. In this scenario, computers present an excellent support for carrying out the task of information search through information retrieval systems on the Internet (Rothbauer-Wanish; FAO). Moreover, a good information recovery system which can help in collection and retrieval of related data and information on the subject of concern can significantly improve the quality of data and information collect ion. With the exception of this, there are a wide variety of other packages for this service. For instance, activities such as working out project budgets, time frames and generation of proposal reports can be aided with the help of data management systems, electronic spreadsheets and word processing, which smooth the progress of development and management of various alternatives with relative simplicity. At the present, the majority of business organizations make use of the Internet for planning of their tasks. For instance, if an organization wants to launch a new product or a service, it can use internet based surveys to collect the response of people. In light of their response, an organization can better decide whether it should launch a particular product or not. So, the use of information technology can save a lot of precious time and effort of an organization (Rothbauer-Wanish; FAO). Organizing Another significant job of managers is organization of the business and this cons ists of various important tasks such as organizing people and resources. In fact, determining how many people would be required for specific shifts can be vital to the success of an organization. On the other hand, if those workers do not have the essential resources to carry out their activities, organization cannot occur. In addition, without an organized place of work, workers will perceive a manager as unqualified and may lose respect for that specific manager’s managerial techniques. In this scenario, computer supported tools and applications can play a significant role. At the present, there are a wide variety of tools and applications which can perform these jobs on behalf of managers. For instance, MS Project can be used to organize tasks. A Gantt chart can provide the necessary information such as when a particular activity will be completed and how much resources will be required to perform a specific task. In this way, computer technology has made this function of management relatively easier (Rothbauer-Wanish; FAO). Leading The management and leadership are not the same activity. Basically, a manager is responsible for managing the workers and their tasks. In other words, this person ensures that all the activities are carried out on time and specific rules and standards are followed. In this scenario,

The Salafi Movement In Global Context Theology Religion Essay

The Salafi Movement In Global Context Theology Religion Essay Salafism (al-Salafiyyah) is a contemporary Islamic global movement, which is concerned with a search for the pure teachings of Islam as prescribed in the Quran and the Prophet Muhammads tradition (sunnah) by rejecting any external influences and human involvement in the interpretation of religious texts. The proponents of Salafism define themselves to be the inheritors of the pre-modern Ahl al-Hadits (people of the Prophet tradition). In their view, this school of thought was the only group that remained faithful to the pure teachings of Islam as prescribed in the Quran and the Sunnah so that it was considered the saved sect. They base their claim on a hadith (the Prophet Muhammad sayings) that the Prophet Muhammad was reported to have said that there would always be a group of his people who remained committed to the truth, whom the Salafis identify as the Ahl al-Hadith (Duderija, 2011). By claiming to be the inheritors of the Ahl al-Hadith and followers of its footsteps, the propon ents of contemporary Salafi movement attempt to assert that they have privilege and take pride to be the guardians of the pure Islam in modern period. The proponents of contemporary Salafism identify themselves, and are proud to be, as salafi (plural: salafiyyin), the followers of al-salaf al-shalih(the righteous ancestors). For them, the term salaf refers to the first three Muslim generations in the early Islam, who were considered as the best Islamic generations as they were directly guided by the Prophet Muhammad and his Companions. This self-ascription is based on their belief that their understanding and practicing Islam is in complete accordance with the footsteps and methodology of the salaf (manhaj al-salaf). Abdullah ibn Baz, one of the main Salafi authorities, said that Salafi ideology is derived from the Quran, Sunnah and Consensus (ijma`) which govern the method of acquiring din [religion] and understanding the Quran and Sunnah according to the principles agreed upon by the righteous predecessors (salaf) (Cited in Duderija, 2011:54). Due to this strong emphasis on the Salaf as the only model of understanding and practic ing Islam, Salafism can be said as a movement of return to the forefather (Marshallsay, 2004). Major Authorities of the Contemporary Salafi Movement Within contemporary Salafi movement, the most influential proponents are the Middle Eastern Muslim scholars with Saudi nationality or Saudi-educated, university educated, many gained PhDs in Islamic sciences from Saudi universities. These include Nashir al-Din al-Albani (d.1999), Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz (d. 1999), Muhammad ibn Shalih al-Uthaymin (d. 2001), Muqbil ibn Hadi al-Wadii (d. 2001), Rabi ibn Hadi al-Madkhali (b. 1931), Yahya al-Hajuri, and Shalih al-Fawzan. The dominance of Saudi Arabian or Saudi-educated religious scholars (ulama) asserts the centrality of Saudi Arabia as the birth of modern Salafism. As the main representative of the Salafi movement, these ulama become major references that Salafi leaders and ordinary followers in the Muslim world turn to for guidance and advice in their lives. Outside the Middle East, leading personalities of Salafism in Western countries such as Jamal Zarabozo and Bilal Philips (Duderija, 2011) mostly become the mouthpiece of these Middle East authorities, translating their Salafi messages for the Western Salafi followers. The same is true for the leaders of the Salafi movement in Indonesia. Most of them went to Saudi and Yemen universities or Islamic religious learning institutions (mahad) to study Islamic knowledge. These include Abu Nida, Ahmad Faiz, Yusuf Baisa, Jafar Umar Thalib, Ayip Syafrudin, Luqman Baabduh and Muhammad Umar Sewed (Hasan, 2007; 2009). Compared to their locally trained Salafi proponents, these Middle East graduates commonly enjoy more authority and recognition from their followers due to their highly-esteemed learning in Mecca or Medinah, two holy cities of Islam. Yet, all of these Salafi exponents make the Saudi and Yemeni Salafi authorities as major, and to some extent, the only references in learning and preachi ng Salafi ideas among Indonesian Muslims. The Middle East Salafi authorities write treatises on Salafi ideas exclusively in Arabic. But, this is not a major barrier for Salafi followers from non-Arabic speaking countries to understand the messages of these Salafi ulama. The Salafi followers and sympathizers have attempted to translate the works of these Salafi ulama into local languages. For this purpose, in Western countries, they have established publishing houses, including Tarbiyyah Publications in Toronto, Invitation to Islam and Al-Khilafat Publications in London, and Salafi Publications and Maktabah Darussalam in Birmingham. Mobilizing the information and communication technologies, they have created websites such as www.salafipublications.com, www.tarbiyyahbookstore.com, http://sunna.com, www.salaf.com, and www.fatwa-online.com. Individual Salafi authorities websites have been also established by the Salafi supporters, such as www.binbaz.com (on the works of Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz), www.rabee.net (on the works of Rabi i bn Hadi al-Madkhali), and www.ibnothaimeen.com (on the works of Muhammad ibn al-Uthaymin) (Duderija, 2011). The Puzzle of the Origin and Meaning of Salafism For decades, there has been conviction among Western and Western-educated scholars that history of Salafism is a history of Islamic modernism; that Salafi ideas are regarded as similar to those of Islamic modernist movement; and the Salafis are representatives of Muslim modernist. It is believed that Salafism dates back to the 19th Islamic modernism, which was associated with Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (d. 1897), Muhammad Abduh (d. 1905), and Rashid Ridha (d. 1935), whose principles and ideas include rejection of taqlid (blind following), promotion of ijtihad (independent interpretation), and support of progress and rationality in its responses to the decline of the Muslim world. As Lauziere (2010) identifies, this conception can be seen in the standard academic works of Islamic thought such as Brills Encyclopedia of Islam, Malcolm Kerrs Islamic Reform (1966), M. A. Zaki Badawis The Reformers of Egypt (1978), and Daniel Browns Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought (1996). Some recent studies by scholars of contemporary Islam, such as Ali Hassan Zaidi (2006) and Dumber and Tayob (2011), also connect Salafi orientations with Muslim reformists in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. However, this conception is problematic in some respects. First, there is no convincing evidence to the claim of the connection among Salafism, al-Afghani, and Abduh. According to Lauziere (2010), there are no primary sources including al-Urwat al-Wuthqa, a flagship journal of al-Afghani and Abduh, that substantially prove the claim that al-Afghani and Abduh coined the term Salafism and used it to identify themselves and their reform movement in the 19th century. It is true that Abduh mentioned the term al-Salafiyyin (the Salafis) in Al-Manar (Al-Manar 5, 1902 cited in Lauziere 2010) to designate Sunni Muslims who were against Ashariyyah, a 10th century school of speculative Islamic theology,  [1]  in terms of theological issues based on their strict adherence to the creed of the forefathers (Lauziere, 2010). But, Abduh clearly did not claim to be a Salafi nor identified his followers as Salafis. He simply referred al-Salafiyyin in the context of theological debates as Sunni Musl ims who differed from Asharites based on their strict adherence to aqidat al-salaf (the creed of the forefather) (Lauziere, 2010). Moreover, Rasyid Ridha, one of Muhammad Abduhs main disciples, recognized the fundamental differences between Salafism and Islamic modernist school, which his mentor promoted. According to Ridha, following the Salafi creed did not necessarily make one committed to Islamic modernist school. During his time, Ridha identified Salafism as Wahhabism to which he called al-Wahhabiyyah al-Salafiyyah. Later, in 1928 he and some of his disciples declared their passage to becoming Salafis not only with respect to Islamic theology but also in fiqh or Islamic jurisprudence (Lauziere, 2010). Second, the unconfirmed claim of ideological connection between contemporary Salafism and the early 20th century Islamic modernism can be seen in the issue of how each defines the term Salaf. While the two movements shared the idea of the importance of the pious ancestors, they differ in the issue of to what extent the Salaf is defined and how it should be modelled. The proponents of Islamic modernism conceived that the term Salaf includes virtually the Muslim scholars of all schools of thought in the medieval period whose success and achievements should be contextually propagated and imitated within modern Muslim contexts. The early 20th century Salafism understood the Salaf as Muslim scholars in religious science as well as in secular science of the golden age of Islam in the medieval period that should be contextually followed. In contrast, the proponents of contemporary Salafism restrict the Salaf to the first three generations in the early Islam, namely the companions of the Prophet Muhammad (al-shahabat), those after them (al-tabiin) and the next generation after them (atba`u al-tabiin). They also include religious scholars (ulama`) in the first and second centuries of Islam who were considered to adhere to the way of these first three Muslim generations, particularly Ahmad bin Hanbal and the followers of his textual school. These Salaf generations and Salafi ulama` were considered rightly guided forefathers and, hence, role models to whom Muslims are obliged to follow their ways in any circumstances. In addition, when the proponents of contemporary Salafism speak about the Salaf, they use it in its narrow religious sense. Practically, they exclude, show suspicion and hostility towards social, cultural and scientific heritage of the Muslim forefathers. In their view, the perfect method of modelling the S alaf in the contemporary Muslim societies is preserving and imitating their footsteps without contextualizing them in the present contexts. Third, the issue of the unconfirmed ideological connection between Salafism and the late 19th century Islamic modernism can be discerned in differences between them with respect to methodology and objectives. In response to the decline of the Islamic world, the Islamic modernism of al-Aghani and Abduh was committed to islah (reform) in Muslim society through promotion of itidal (moderation and balance) by which Muslims were expected to conduct conciliation between Islam and Western civilization. It encouraged the appreciation and adoption of social, political and scientific achievements of Western civilization and at the same rooted firmly in Islamic principles and civilization. In other words, al-Afghani and Abduhs Islamic modernism was a moderate approach to Islam and Western civilization in that it was able to balance between revelation and reason, and between strict Islamic conservatism and blind following of the West (Lauziere, 2010). Contemporary Salafism, in contrast, aims to revive the golden age of Islam by adhering strictly to the ways of the first three Muslim generations in the early Islam understood and practiced Islam to protect its purity from forbidden religious innovation. From this perspective, the making of the Salaf as a perfect model requires strict applying the Salaf method in social and cultural vacuum, without contextualizing their ideas and practices within present contexts of the Muslim world. Subsequently, this movement regards revealed texts as the only primary sources so that its proponents tend to be anti-rationalistic approach to revelation. The proponents of contemporary Salafism are also suspicious of anything not textually written in the scripture, taught or done by the Prophet Muhammad, his companions and religious scholars adhered to their ways. Conservatism, or even ultra conservatism, is highly represented in contemporary Salafi movement. As a result, there is no adequate evidence to claim ideological connection between the late 19th and early 20th centurys Islamic modernism and the contemporary Salafi movement. There is no support that Al-Afghani and Abduh proclaimed they were Salafis or exponents of the Salafi movement or their ideas were in accordance with contemporary Salafism. The modernist conception of Salafism substantially differs from the contemporary Salafisms understanding of the same term. Within contemporary Salafi movement, salafism is conceived first and foremost as label by Sunni purist-literalist-traditionalists to designate their particular approach to Islam. Conceptual History of Salafism Undoubtedly, the uncertainty of the origin and meaning of Salafism within modern scholarship has caused the substance of Salafism remain puzzling. Fortunately, a recent study by Henri Lauziere (2010) is helpful in solving this puzzle and gaining relative certainty in the issues of the origin and meaning of Salafism. He argues that the puzzle of the meaning and origins of Salafism is attributable to the faulty scholarship and the fact that there is little scholarly attention to the examination of the history of knowledge production of Salafism (Lauziere, 2010:369). The First Use of the Term Salafism Historically speaking, Salafism as a religious orientation is not purely a modern phenomenon. Rather, it rooted in the Islamic scholarship in pre-modern history of Islam. The early use of the term Salafism (Salafiyyah) as an approach to religious texts is found in a number of religious scholars works in the medieval period. For example, Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1238) writes in his al-Fatawa al-Kubra: As for the Salafiyya it is as [Hamd ibn Muhammad] al-Khattabi and Abu Bakr al-Khatib [al-Bagdadi] and other have stated: The way of the Salaf is to interpret literally the Quran verses and hadiths that relate to the Divine attributes (ijra ayat al-sifat wa ahadits al-sifat ala zahiriha), and without indicating modality and without attributing to Him anthropomorphic qualities. So that one is not to state that the meaning of hand is power or that of hearing is knowledge (Cited in Haykel, 2009:38). However, as Haykel (2009) and Dumbe Tayob (2011) suggest, the historical precedent of the Salafi orientations even dates back earlier to the 9th century theological and juridical debates between the Ahl al-Ray (people of opinion), which was associated with the Mutazilah,  [2]  and Ahl al-Hadith (people of the Prophet Muhammads tradition), which was related to Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855), the inspirer of the Hanbali school of law (Hanbaliyyah).  [3]  Particularly, the early use of the term Salaf and its derivatives in this period can be traced back to the Ahl al Hadits. It is reported that Ibn Hanbal said: It has been transmitted from more than one of our ancestors (salafina) that they said the Quran is the speech of God and is uncreated, and this is what I endorse. I do not engage in speculative theology and I hold that there is nothing to be said other than what is in Gods Book (Quran), the traditions of His messenger or those of his companions and their followers- may God have mercy on them. It is not praiseworthy to engage in theological discussion in matters not contained therein (Cited in Haykel, 2009:38). These statements not only refer to the early use of the terms Salaf and Salafism within Islamic scholarship, but also points out the way of thinking that the early Salafis advocated in regard to theological issues such as the nature of the Quran as Gods messages revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. With respect to the approach to the interpretation of religious texts, the Ahl al-Ra`y represented Muslims scholars who sought explanations from personal opinions and borrowings from other cultures and intellectual traditions, while the Ahl al-Hadits sufficed themselves with literal meanings of the texts and tradition of the Prophet and his companions believed as pure and original sources of Islam. Another corresponding term, madhhab al-salaf (the school of forefathers), is found in the literature of Muslim scholars of medieval period. As Lauziere (2010:372) suggests, written sources also indicate that medieval Muslims scholars used this term primarily in the theological debates within early schools of theology in Islam. The notion of madhhab al-salaf was used to designate those who hold a theological purity in a time when early Muslims were not faced yet with speculative theology (ilm al-kalam) resulted from the encounter of Islam and other world civilizations. The proponents of madhhab al-salaf showed hostility towards Islamic speculative theology (ilm al-kalam) which was influenced by Greek inspiration and rationalism such ilm al-mantiq (syllogistic logic) and falsafah (philosophy). Contrary to Islamic theologians (mutakalimin) such as Mutazilis and Asharites, the people of the madhhab al-salaf distanced themselves from intellectualizing the divine issues, such as al asma` w al sifat (the divine names and attributes). However, the word Salafi or Salafism was not commonly used by medieval purist Muslims to refer to themselves and their approach to Islam. Instead, the common epithets used to refer to the purists at the period were not derived from the word salaf, but rather from the terms associated with the Prophet Muhammads tradition, such as Ahl al-Sunnah (people of the prophetic tradition), Ahl al-Hadist (people of prophetic sayings and sayings) or al-Atsari (the follower of the prophetic report) (Lauziere, 2010:373). The Origin of the Confusion of Salafism: Louis Massignon and the Salafyah Review A recent study by Lauziere (2010) revealed the origin of the confusion between Salafism and Islamic modernism in scholarly literature. He argues that puzzle of Salafism lies in the fact Massignon and scholars who quoted him were not aware of the complex development of the Salafi epithets within Muslim scholars in the Middle East. They simply relied on al-Majallah al-Salafiyyah, a monthly reformist journal published by Salafiyya Bookstore in Egypt -whose key role in Salafi discourses will be examined in the following section- that reached overseas including Paris. Being established in 1917, the journal was edited by Abd al-Fattah Qatlan and rendered by him into English as Salafyah Review. The journal was purported to serve as a marketing vehicle for reaching a wider readership of the Salafiyyah Bookstore. More importantly, the journal was created in the period in which the reform spirit overwhelmed the Salafiyyah Bookstore before the coming of the Saudi-Wahhabi influence on the type o f literature it published. So, in line with the reform spirit, the journal aimed to spread the achievements of the pious ancestors (al-salaf) in a wide range of scientific, cultural and intellectual fields. In line with this spirit, the content of the journal encompassed various themes such as literature, linguistics, and astronomy in addition to religious topics (Lauziere, 2010:379). It was through this journal that the term Salafism caught the attention of Western scholars (Lauziere, 2010). Louis Massignon, a well-known French orientalist and the major contributor to the leading journal Revue du monde musulman, subscribed to Arabic journals including al-Majallah al-Salafiyyah. When the first issue of the journal reached his journal office, Massignon provided explanation of the Majallah al-Salafiyyah to the readers of his journal. He said that the Salafiyyah was an intellectual movement that emerged in early 19th century India at the time of Sayyid Ahmad Barelwi (d. 1931) [and] Siddiq Hasan Khan (d. 1890), the founder of the Ahl-i Hadith movement, had later rehashed its ideas (Cited in Lauziere, 2010:380). Then, he added that from there, [the Salafiyyah] was spread by Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Syaikh Abduh and established itself in Baghdad, Damascus, Cairo and even in the Maghrib and Java (Revue du monde musulman 34, 1916-18 in Lauziere, 2010:380). But, later M assignon abolished the connection of the Salafiyyah with the 19th century Indian movement and focused more on its link with al-Afghani and Abduh. Then, he associated Salafiyyah with a relatively transnational Islamic modernism in the 19th century, whose proponents were committed to reform in Islam and Muslim societies (Lauziere, 2010). However, Massignons claim of Salafism is problematic as it raised questions with respect to conceptual and historical foundations of Salafism he based on. It is not clear how he came to this claim though it is known that he studied Islam in Baghdad and made contacts with some reform-oriented Muslim scholars like Jamal al-Din al-Qasimi. Due to this, it can be said that Massignon misinterpreted the term Salafiyyah and inadequately made Salafism and Islamic modernism of al-Afghani and Abduh synonymous (Lauziere, 2010). Nevertheless, as Lauziere (2010:381) shows, some leading scholars welcomed Massignons definition of Salafism and even took its validity for granted despite its factual limitations. The famous The New World of Islam, published in 1921, repeated this misinterpretation when made reference to Salafiyyah. In 1922, the leading journal The Moslem World published by Hartford Seminary did the same when it translated an article of Massignon from the Revue du monde musulman. This is further misinterpreted by Henri Laoust, a scholar who spread Massignons ideas in French, when in his seminal article in 1932 defined Salafism based on Massignons conception. Even influential scholar Sir Hamilton Gibb took Massignons claim of Salafism for granted in his famous Modern Trends in Islam. Hence, it is through this intellectual transmission that the term Salafism with the sense of Islamic modernist movement was created within Western scholarly literature on Islam. The Evolution of Salafism If there is no connection with al-Afghani and Abduhs Islamic modernism of the late 19th century, who first used the Salafi label as understood today? And how was it defined? As Lauziere (2010) argues, to remedy this puzzle requires considering the origin and development of the term Salafism from the perspective of conceptual history. According to Lauziere (2010, the growing popularity of Salafi epithets as well as overlap between Salafism and Islamic modernism can be attributed to a key role played by the Salafiyah Bookstore (al-Maktabat al-Salafiyyah). It was established in 1909 in Cairo by Muhib al-Din al-Khatib (1886-1969), a Syrian activist, well-known figure in the Egyptian publishing business, and pupil of Salafis-cum-modernists ulama`, Jamal al-Din al-Qasimi (d. 1914) and Tahir al-Jazairi (d. 1920). Al-Khatibs involvement in cultural and political affairs opened the opportunity to establish the bookstore aimed at spreading his interests in Islamic scholarship and reformist ideas under the label Salafiyyah (Salafism). The name Salafiyyah for the bookstore was inspired by al-Khatibs mentor, Tahir al-Jazairi, who had inclinations to the madhhab al-salaf (school of the forefathers) with respect to Islamic theology. But, it seemed that al-Khatib misinterpreted the term Salafiyyah or understood it in a broader sense than al-Jazairi meant (Lauziere, 2010). This is reflected in the way he and his partner, Abdul Fattah Qatlan (d. 1931), operated the Salafiyyah Bookstore, particularly in terms of the type of literature they published. Being motivated by desires to encourage educated Arab readers to rediscover the glory of their religious, social and cultural heritage for the advancement of their society, al-Khatib and Qatlan were not confined themselves in printing and selling books on the Salafi theology. Rather, they published works on progressive nature of Islams golden age as well as a wide range of issues not connected to religious reform. They used the Salafi epithets to refer virtually to any Islamic intellectual heritage in medieval period, not in a narrow sense of a particular school of theology. In addition to treatises on religion, the Salafiyyah Bookstore published works on Arabic literat ure, Arabic grammar, and work of medieval Muslim philosophers such al-Farabi (d.950) and Ibn Sina (d.1037). In short, the literature that the Salafiyyah Bookstore published and sold in the 1910s was in accordance with the spirit and concerns of Islamic modernism (Lauziere, 2010:378). The selection and publication of this type of literature suggest that al-Khatib and Qatlan attempted to revive the works of the great Muslim scholars and underline the Muslimss contribution to modernity in the West of modern age. Under the label Salafism, they sought to emphasize the compatibility between revelation and modernity as shown by the works of great and pious forefathers (Salaf) in the past by which Muslims in the modern age should model for the revival and advancement of the Islamic world. In turn, all this resulted in turning Salafiyyah into a common and popular term among producers and consumers of Arabic literature in the Middle East and other Muslim regions (Lauziere, 2010:382). More importantly, an impression built up that the Salafiyyah Bookstore intertwined the term Salafism with Islamic modernism projected to the revival of Arabs and Muslims in the modern period. The label Salafism it used was then considered as to represent the success and greatness of the Islami c past. The bookstore expanded the scope of the term Salafism beyond its initial theological meanings and gradually created the association between Salafism and the project of Islamic modernism (Lauziere, 2010:377). The later development of the Salafiyyah Bookstore, however, determined the association of Islamic modernism and Salafism and brought about decisive changes in the nature and development of Salafism after the establishment of the Saudi Kingdom in the early 1920s. The bookstore experienced a shift with respect to choices of works for publication. This began with the change in the choice of works for publication. In the early 1920s, al-Khatib and Qatlan began to print works that appeared contradictive to the progressive and rationalist ideas of the Islamic reform movement though they kept promoting Islamic modernism. For example, the Salafiyyah Bookstore published works of those who strongly opposed the secular and controversial works of Ali Abd al-Raziq and Taha Husayn. It also published anti-rationalist treatises by Hanbali and his school followers ordered by Saudis. This shift in the choice of publications was more clearly discernable in the establishment of the Saudi branch of the S alafiyyah Bookstore in Mecca in the late 1920 initiated by Qatlan in partnership with a Hijazi Muhammad Salih Nasif (d.1971). In 1928, to suit the local needs, this Saudi branch began to publish works on Ahmad ibn Hanbal and his supporters as well pro-Wahhabi books such a theological treatise by Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyya (1292-1350), which was printed with the request and fund from Ibn Saud (d. 1932), the first monarch of Saudi Arabia (Lauziere, 2010:383). This shift within the Salafiyya Bookstores choice of publications, according to Lauziere (2010), should be seen in the context of political change in the Muslim world in the mid 1920s. The fall of the Ottoman Empire and the abolition of Islamic caliphate in the early 1920s brought about political and cultural turbulence within the Muslim world. At the same time, however, the rise of the Saudi Kingdom in Hejaz offered Muslim ummah (global Muslim community) a great hope of social and political renaissance in the Muslim world. Therefore, many Muslims intellectuals and religious scholars, including Rasyid Ridha, supported the young Saudi state and turned toward religious conservatism, particularly Wahhabism,  [4]  founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792), and endorsed as an official school of Islam and promoted by the state. Al-Khatib showed the same response to these circumstances. He opted to support the young Saudi state and showed respect to the Wahhabism and its propone nts. These religio-political stances influenced the activities of his Salafiyyah Bookstore. This was reflected in the change of choices of editing and publishing when it began to publish the Wahhabi treatises and pro-Saudi works. Although Lauziere missed to capture the complexity of social and political transformation in the Muslim world in the first quarter of twentieth century, his argument was sufficient to overcome to the puzzle of Salafism by making sense of the evolution of Salafism. By publishing pro-Wahhabi works to cater the religious and political needs of the Saudi elite and proponents of Wahhabism, the Salafiyyah Bookstore brought its commercial label Salafism closer to Wahhabism. Though the Cairo Salafiyyah Bookstore still published modernist themes, the popularization and commodification of the Salafi epithets by the Saudi branch of the Salafiyyah Bookstore had brought the Wahhabi religious orientation to the fore. The unfounded intellectual association between Salafism (Salafiyyah) and al-Afghani and Abduhs Islamic reform as well as the absence of the monopoly over Salafism as a marketing brand that al-Khatib and Qatlan might have opened opportunity to the proponents of the Wahhabi-oriented pur ist movement kept using Salafiyyah as the label of their publications ignoring any modernist agenda as initiated by the original Salafi Bookstore in Cairo (Lauziere, 2010). It can be added that given that they shared the strong reference to the pious forefather (al-salaf al-shalih) with respect to theological issues with the Salafiyyah Bookstore, at least in its early years of operation, the proponents of Wahhabism had no difficulties in taking the advantage of using Salafism as their label of spreading the purist ideas of Ibn al-Wahhab. Through these religious-political processes, consequently, the Salafi epithets experienced re-definition and counter-definitions. More importantly, this gradually created the impression that the term Salafism and Wahhabism of Saudi Arabia were synonymous. The opening of the Saudi-connected Salafiyyah bookstores outside Saudi Arabia, such as in Syria and Pakistan, enforced this impression (Lauziere, 2010). Undoubtedly, this evolution of Salafism explains the state of the contemporary development of the Salafi movement with Saudi Arabia as its major supporter. Due to the fact that it is a contemporary phenomenon that assigns the epistemological value to traditions, Adis Duderija (2007:2011) labels the proponents of this contemporary Salafism as Neo-Traditional Salafis. In its later development, in the 1960s Wahhabi-inspired Salafism encountered with religious-political ideas brought by the Islamic activists who fled from their ruling governments repression and persecution found Saudi Arabia safe haven. This has to do with the Saudi Arabias policy under King Faisal (d. 1975) to support Islamic solidarity in its attempts to oppose Egypts pan-Arabism promoted by President Jamal Abdel Nasser (d. 1970), which was regarded as a threat to the existence of the kingdom (Lacroix, 2010). Among these refugees were the members of al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun (the Muslim Brotherhood), a religious-political movement that first emerged in Egypt in 1928 and then spread to the Muslim world. The political aspects of the ideology of al-Ikhwan al Muslimun encountered with the puritanical ideas of Wahhabism (Wahhabiyyah) brought about an intellectual hybrid identified as al-Sahwa al-Islamiyya (th

Conrad’s The Heart of Darkness and the European’s Claim to Superiority

Conrad’s The Heart of Darkness and the European’s Claim to Superiority Incomplete Works Cited Just beyond the â€Å"biggest and greatest town on earth†, four men sit patiently on their boat, waiting for the serene waters of the Thames to ebb (65). One of the men, a Buddha, breaks the silence, saying, â€Å"and this also†¦has been one of the dark places of the earth† (67). This pensive and peaceful idol, Marlow, explains to his apathetic listeners how a great civilization is blindly made out of a darkness, remarking, â€Å"The conquest of the earth, which mostly means the taking it away from those who have a different complexion or slightly flatter noses than ourselves, is not a pretty thing when you look into it too much. What redeems it is the idea only† (70). The irony with which Marlow looks upon colonization suggests that this redeeming feature, â€Å"†¦Europe’s claim to be civilized, and therefore superior, needs earnest reexamination† (Sarvan). As Sarvan suggests, Heart of Darkness contrasts the appearance of African â€Å"savagery† with European â€Å"civility† to demonstrate the inhumanity of the Europeans, rather than that of the Africans. Conrad’s dehumanizing descriptions of the Africans serve to show the inhuman effects of colonialism, rather than to demean the African people. For example, Sarvan notes that when an African is â€Å"reclaimed† by serving the Europeans, â€Å"†¦it is grim irony because he has been reclaimed to a worse state of barbarism.† When Marlow reaches the first station, he notices one of the â€Å"reclaimed† in a uniform jacket missing a button and notes, â€Å"†¦[He] seemed to take me into partnership in his exalted trust†¦I also was a part of the great cause of these high and just proceedings† (82). By ironically referrin... ...rlow’s â€Å"ironic voyage of discovery† could have happened anywhere. Indeed, the appearance of a fiendish black figure with his â€Å"long black legs, waving long black arms† is a mere illusion created by the fire behind him (148). The possibility that this wild and mysterious being in the midst of a great darkne ss could represent any man in any place lends a great sense of significance to Marlow’s â€Å"inconclusive experiences† (70). The irony of this dark portrayal of human nature is that humanity must hide from its own abomination in order to survive. Just as Marlow tells a detestable lie to hide the horrors of one man’s corrupted soul, it is ironic that the â€Å"taint of death, a flavor of morality† should protect idealism (96). Works Cited Conrad, Joseph. â€Å"Heart of Darkness.† An Introduction to Literature. Terry, Joseph. New York, NY: Longman, 2001. 1614-1672.

Implementation and evaluation of technology plan in schools Essay

Following the important role played by technology in current industrial society, there is much need to incorporate technology in schools to help students prepare for the rapid changing world. Incorporation of technology in schools will not only enhance learning but will also support education reform goals. To this end, in order to ensure effective integration of technology in schools, there is need to ensure that there is collaboration and sharing of vision among schools, community members, parents, educators as well as business leaders. This will help to ensure that the plan does not help in acquisition of software and computers alone but have promoted collaboration, professional development, meaningful learning capable of adjusting to any change. Implementation of Webpage SharePoint in schools The implementation of webpage SharePoint will help in developing a collaborative online link for teachers, parents geared towards enrichment of student’s activities. Incorporation of webpage in school will provide a centralized location where teachers and parents could interact and get to learn on the development across all schools while still providing a framework to share ideas, discuss issues and develop rapport with other teachers and parents. Incorporation of webpage and SharePoint will be able to foster a greater sense in volunteer participation and shared purpose across school through timely, continuous and consistent information (Alfinio, Jonathan, James & Fredrick, 2000). Implication of Webpage on mathematics; Implementation of webpage in school will help in preparing and modeling of respective teachers with technologies, tools and strategies consistent with National standards as well as with standards of other schools. It will also provide a framework for curriculum development, teaching and assessment of prospective teaching expected from teachers. This as a result will help to ensure that through webpage, teachers address the needs of students through incorporation of teaming in teaching and planning; development of flexible interdisciplinary thematic block scheduling and curriculum units as well as formation of cooperative heterogeneous grouping (Alfinio, Jonathan, James & Fredrick, 2000). Implementation of Parent link in schools According to Science Daily (2009) with implementation of parent link as a new parent communication system. Parents will be provided with instantaneous messages through telephone text messaging and e-mail. This will prove very fundamental in enhancing message conveyance for homework assignments, weather cancellations. This sophisticated system will help school to alert parents to the closing of the school as well as student’s test score. With a special code, implementation of parent link parents will be notified of the attendance of their children through an automated message. The technology have been successfully implemented and proved quick and reliable in Osceola Township where it works very efficiently in alerting parents on a snow day, (Tom, 2009). In enhancing mathematics, the parentlink will have four tabs in mathematics, science, English language and social science where the parent will be provided with an access of how the child is learning; the grade level the child is as well as the state standards for each subject, (Maria, 2010). On institutional organization, implementation of parent link will provide educators and parents with a snapshot of the performance of the child from the student profile, the support system the child needs in order to improve on performance. Through the parent link, the school will be well equipped with the student as well as parent’s data based on meal codes, test scores, home language and others which will be fundamental in supporting the family as well as the child. Parent link will provide parents with timely access of their children’s information thereby allowing them to contact the school immediately they come a cross inaccurate information (Maria, 2010). Maria, (2010) explains â€Å"Aris parent link system has provided families with information about their school as well as of other schools, information that has enabled parents to collaborate with teachers in addressing the strengths and weaknesses of their students. Helped parents to make a choice of helping the school as well as in selecting a school of their choice. † Why implement Skype Technology in schools. Science Daily (2009) explains that â€Å"even without direct input from a teacher, as long as there is an environment that stimulates curiosity, is possible for children to teach themselves and share pertinent knowledge. A process called ‘minimally invasive education. † When Skype technology is incorporated in the school, it will offer an ideal resolution for team-based education. With Skype webcam chats, students will be provided with an authentic experience and enough access to a free personal tutor. This will also enable students to collaborate with their English-learning fellows and especially through face-book. Glendon & Kathleen (2009) observes that in Wiregrass High School, â€Å"students benefit in exchanging questions and answers with their teachers via SMS and browse classroom blogs for additional instruction. As a collaborative tool, Skype have helped students to quickly trade notes while other simply takes a snapshot of the blackboard for later studying. † On instructional organization, Implementation of Skype software in schools will facilitate and allow teachers to work in those schools situated in undesirable and remote locations without leaving their offices. Skype and mathematics By 2011, Skype technology should be able to provide collaboration in mathematics through web environment. It should be made to incorporate such features an interface with browser to ensure that students and teachers are able to login from anywhere, an automatic TeX formatting filter for formula typing by teachers and students, (Science Daily, 2009). This implementation of Skype in school curriculum will therefore help students collaborate in computing a complex problem, work on currency conversion, and calculate time zones for other countries among other applications (Science Daily, 2009). Implementation of Skype in schools will facilitate connection between teachers and students world wide through real-time synchronous discussions, audio and text chat, instant file sharing and video conferences. Skype will allow teachers to collaborate and network with their fellow educators; students with the help of Skype will be privileged to surrender their assignments and get back the graded scores from their teachers (Science Daily, 2009). From the discussion above, it is very clear that it is not possible for computers to replace good teachers. However, this technology can be utilized to ensure a high standard of learning in the schools while still allowing teachers to remain at their desirable areas. To this end, incorporation of technology in schools should not be considered a threat to teaching rather an asset to enhance the same (Science Daily, 2009).

Learn How Animals Are Classified

Learn How Animals Are Classified For centuries, the practice of naming and classifying living organisms into groups has been an integral part of the study of nature.  Aristotle (384BC-322BC) developed the first known method of classifying organisms, grouping organisms by their means of transport such as air, land, and water. A number of other naturalists followed with other classification systems. But it was Swedish botanist, Carolus (Carl) Linnaeus (1707-1778) that is considered to be the pioneer of modern taxonomy. In his book Systema Naturae, first published in 1735, Carl Linnaeus introduced a rather clever way to classify and name organisms. This system, now referred to as Linnaean taxonomy, has been used to varying extents, ever since. About Linnaean Taxonomy Linnaean taxonomy categorizes organisms into a hierarchy of kingdoms, classes, orders, families, genera, and species based on shared physical characteristics. The category of phylum was added to the classification scheme later, as a hierarchical level just beneath kingdom. Groups at the top of the hierarchy (kingdom, phylum, class) are more broad in definition and contain a greater number of organisms than the more specific groups that are lower in the hierarchy (families, genera, species). By assigning each group of organisms to a kingdom, phylum, class, family, genus, and species, they can then be uniquely characterized. Their membership in a group tells us about the traits they share with other members of the group, or the traits that make them unique when compared to organisms in groups to which they do not belong. Many scientists still use the Linnaean classification system to some extent today, but it is no longer the only method for grouping and characterizing organisms. Scientists now have many different ways of identifying organisms and describing how they relate to each other. To best understand the science of classification, it will help to first examine a few basic terms: classification - the systematic grouping and naming of organisms based on shared structural similarities, functional similarities, or evolutionary historytaxonomy - the science of classifying organisms (describing, naming, and categorizing organisms)systematics - the study of the diversity of life and the relationships between organisms Types of Classification Systems With an understanding of classification, taxonomy, and systematics, we can now examine the different types of classifications systems that are available. For instance, you can classify organisms according to their structure, placing organisms that look similar in the same group. Alternatively, you can classify organisms according to their evolutionary history, placing organisms that have a shared ancestry in the same group. These two approaches are referred to as phenetics and cladistics and are defined as follows: phenetics  - a method of classifying organisms that is based on their overall similarity in physical characteristics or other observable traits (it does not take phylogeny into account)cladistics  - a method of analysis (genetic analysis, biochemical analysis, morphological analysis) that determines relationships between organisms that are based solely on their evolutionary history In general, Linnaean taxonomy uses  phenetics  to classify organisms. This means it relies on physical characteristics or other observable traits to classify organisms and does consider the evolutionary history of those organisms. But keep in mind that similar physical characteristics are often the product of shared evolutionary history, so Linnaean taxonomy (or phenetics) sometimes reflects the evolutionary background of a group of organisms. Cladistics  (also called phylogenetics or phylogenetic systematics) looks to the evolutionary history of organisms to form the underlying framework for their classification. Cladistics, therefore, differs from phenetics in that it is based on  phylogeny  (the evolutionary history of a group or lineage), not on the observation of physical similarities. Cladograms When characterizing the evolutionary history of a group of organisms, scientists develop tree-like diagrams called cladograms. These diagrams consist of a series of branches and leaves that represent the evolution of groups of organisms through time. When a group splits into two groups, the cladogram displays a node, after which the branch then proceeds in different directions. Organisms are located as leaves (at the ends of the branches).   Biological Classification Biological classification is in a continual state of flux. As our knowledge of organisms expands, we gain a better understanding of the similarities and differences among various groups of organisms. In turn, those similarities and differences shape how we assign animals to the various groups (taxa). taxon  (pl. taxa) - taxonomic unit, a group of organisms that has been named Factors That Shaped High-Order Taxonomy The invention of the microscope in the mid-sixteenth century revealed a minute world filled with countless new organisms that had previously escaped classification because they were too tiny to see with the naked eye. Throughout the past century, rapid advances in evolution and genetics (as well as a host of related fields such as cell biology, molecular biology, molecular genetics, and biochemistry, to name just a few) constantly reshape our understanding of how organisms relate to one another and shed new light on previous classifications. Science is constantly reorganizing the branches and leaves of the tree of life. The vast changes to a classification that have occurred throughout the history of taxonomy can best be understood by examining how the highest level taxa (domain, kingdom, phylum) have changed throughout history. The history of taxonomy stretches back to the 4th century BC, to the times of Aristotle and before. Since the first classification systems emerged, dividing the world of life into various groups with various relationships, scientists have grappled with the task of keeping classification in sync with scientific evidence. The sections that follow provide a summary of the changes that have taken place at the highest level of biological classification over the history of taxonomy. Two Kingdoms (Aristotle, during 4th century BC) Classification system based on:  Observation (phenetics) Aristotle was among the first to document the division of life forms into animals and plants. Aristotle classified animals according to observation, for example, he defined high-level groups of animals by whether or not they had red blood (this roughly reflects the division between vertebrates and invertebrates used today). Plantae  - plantsAnimalia  - animals Three Kingdoms (Ernst Haeckel, 1894) Classification system based on:  Observation (phenetics) The three kingdom system, introduced by Ernst Haeckel in 1894, reflected the long-standing two kingdoms (Plantae and Animalia) that can be attributed to Aristotle (perhaps before) and added third kingdom, Protista that included single-celled eukaryotes and bacteria (prokaryotes). Plantae  - plants (mostly autotrophic, multi-cellular eukaryotes, reproduction by spores)Animalia  - animals (heterotrophic, multi-cellular eukaryotes)Protista  - single-celled eukaryotes and bacteria (prokaryotes) Four Kingdoms (Herbert Copeland, 1956) Classification system based on:  Observation (phenetics) The important change introduced by this classification scheme was the introduction of the Kingdom Bacteria. This reflected the growing understanding that bacteria (single-celled prokaryotes) were very much different from single-celled eukaryotes. Previously, single-celled eukaryotes and bacteria (single-celled prokaryotes) were grouped together in the Kingdom Protista. But Copeland elevated Haeckels two Protista phyla to the level of kingdom. Plantae  - plants (mostly autotrophic, multi-cellular eukaryotes, reproduction by spores)Animalia  - animals (heterotrophic, multi-cellular eukaryotes)Protista  - single-celled eukaryotes (lack tissues or extensive cellular differentiation)Bacteria  - bacteria (single-celled prokaryotes) Five Kingdoms (Robert Whittaker, 1959) Classification system based on:  Observation (phenetics) Robert Whittakers 1959 classification scheme added the fifth kingdom to Copelands four kingdoms, the Kingdom Fungi (single and multi-cellular osmotrophic eukaryotes) Plantae  - plants (mostly autotrophic, multi-cellular eukaryotes, reproduction by spores)Animalia  - animals (heterotrophic, multi-cellular eukaryotes)Protista  - single-celled eukaryotes (lack tissues or extensive cellular differentiation)Monera  - bacteria (single-celled prokaryotes)Fungi  (single and multi-cellular osmotrophic eukaryotes) Six Kingdoms (Carl Woese, 1977) Classification system based on:  Evolution and molecular genetics (Cladistics/Phylogeny) In 1977, Carl Woese extended Robert Whittakers Five Kingdoms to replace Kingdom bacteria with two kingdoms, Eubacteria and Archaebacteria. Archaebacteria differ from Eubacteria in their genetic transcription and translation processes (in Archaebacteria, transcription, and translation more closely resembled eukaryotes). These distinguishing characteristics were shown by molecular genetic analysis. Plantae  - plants (mostly autotrophic, multi-cellular eukaryotes, reproduction by spores)Animalia  - animals (heterotrophic, multi-cellular eukaryotes)Eubacteria  - bacteria (single-celled prokaryotes)Archaebacteria  - prokaryotes (differ from bacteria in their genetic transcription and translation, more similar to eukaryotes)Protista  - single-celled eukaryotes (lack tissues or extensive cellular differentiation)Fungi  - single and multi-cellular osmotrophic eukaryotes Three Domains (Carl Woese, 1990) Classification system based on:  Evolution and molecular genetics (Cladistics/Phylogeny) In 1990, Carl Woese put forth a classification scheme that greatly overhauled previous classification schemes. The three-domain system he proposed is based on molecular biology studies and resulted in the placement of organisms into three domains. BacteriaArchaeaEukarya